What Are Discourse Markers?
Discourse markers are words and phrases that organize, connect, and manage the flow of language. They signal relationships between ideas, show the speaker's attitude, and guide the listener through a text or conversation.
At C2 level, your use of discourse markers should be varied, precise, and natural. This is what separates competent English from truly sophisticated English.
Categories of Discourse Markers
1. Adding and Reinforcing
Beyond "and" and "also," advanced speakers use:
| Marker | Register | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Furthermore | Formal | The project is over budget. Furthermore, it is behind schedule. |
| Moreover | Formal | The evidence is compelling. Moreover, it is corroborated by multiple sources. |
| In addition to this | Formal | In addition to this, the committee recommended further investigation. |
| What is more | Semi-formal | The hotel was expensive. What is more, the service was terrible. |
| On top of that | Informal | I missed my flight. On top of that, my luggage was lost. |
| Not to mention | Semi-formal | She speaks four languages, not to mention her expertise in programming. |
| To say nothing of | Formal | The cost was enormous, to say nothing of the environmental impact. |
2. Contrasting and Conceding
| Marker | Register | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Nevertheless / Nonetheless | Formal | The evidence was weak. Nevertheless, the jury found him guilty. |
| Be that as it may | Formal | The plan has flaws. Be that as it may, it is the best option we have. |
| Having said that / That said | Semi-formal | The restaurant is expensive. Having said that, the food is extraordinary. |
| Admittedly | Semi-formal | Admittedly, I could have handled the situation better. |
| Granted | Semi-formal | Granted, the task was difficult, but that is no excuse. |
| Much as | Formal | Much as I appreciate your help, I need to do this myself. |
| Notwithstanding | Very formal | Notwithstanding these concerns, the project will proceed. |
| All the same | Informal | I know it's risky. All the same, I want to try. |
3. Cause and Consequence
| Marker | Register | Example |
|---|---|---|
| As a consequence / As a result | Formal | Rainfall was exceptionally low. As a consequence, crop yields fell dramatically. |
| Thereby | Formal | She resigned, thereby creating a vacancy on the board. |
| Hence | Formal | The data was corrupted, hence the inaccurate results. |
| Accordingly | Formal | The market conditions changed. Accordingly, we adjusted our strategy. |
| Given that | Semi-formal | Given that the deadline has passed, we need to renegotiate. |
| Seeing as / Seeing that | Informal | Seeing as you're here, would you mind helping? |
| In light of | Formal | In light of recent events, the policy has been revised. |
4. Exemplifying and Clarifying
| Marker | Register | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Namely | Formal | Two countries objected, namely France and Germany. |
| That is to say | Formal | The project is on hold — that is to say, no further work will be done until April. |
| To put it another way | Semi-formal | To put it another way, we simply cannot afford it. |
| In other words | Neutral | He was made redundant. In other words, he lost his job. |
| More specifically | Formal | The company needs to cut costs, more specifically in the marketing department. |
5. Sequencing and Structuring
| Marker | Register | Example |
|---|---|---|
| First and foremost | Formal | First and foremost, safety must be our priority. |
| To begin with | Semi-formal | To begin with, let me outline the key issues. |
| Subsequently | Formal | He graduated in 2015 and subsequently joined a law firm. |
| In the first instance | Formal | In the first instance, contact your local office. |
| Last but not least | Semi-formal | Last but not least, I want to thank the volunteers. |
| To sum up / To conclude | Formal | To sum up, the advantages clearly outweigh the disadvantages. |
| All things considered | Semi-formal | All things considered, it was a successful event. |
6. Hedging and Softening
Hedging markers show caution, politeness, or uncertainty — crucial for academic and professional English:
- As far as I'm concerned, this is the best approach.
- To a certain extent, I agree with your argument.
- It could be argued that the policy has failed.
- Broadly speaking, the results are positive.
- The solution is, to some degree, dependent on funding.
- As it were, we are standing at a crossroads. (metaphorical)
7. Spoken Discourse Markers
In conversation, native speakers use markers to manage turn-taking, buy thinking time, and show engagement:
- Mind you — used to add a contrasting thought: "It's a great car. Mind you, it's very expensive."
- As a matter of fact — to emphasize a surprising truth: "As a matter of fact, I've already done it."
- Come to think of it — when you suddenly remember: "Come to think of it, she did mention something about that."
- For what it's worth — offering an opinion modestly: "For what it's worth, I think you made the right decision."
- By the way — introducing a tangential topic.
- Anyway / Anyhow — returning to the main point or wrapping up.
Using Discourse Markers in Writing vs. Speaking
| Writing | Speaking |
|---|---|
| Furthermore, Moreover | Plus, On top of that, What's more |
| Nevertheless, Nonetheless | Still, Even so, All the same |
| Consequently, Hence | So, That's why |
| In conclusion | So basically, To wrap up |
| That is to say | I mean, What I'm saying is |
Example Paragraph Using Discourse Markers
"The government's new education policy has been widely criticized. Admittedly, the intention behind the reforms was sound: to raise standards and reduce inequality. However, the implementation has been deeply flawed. Not only have schools been left without adequate funding, but teachers have also been given insufficient training. As a consequence, student outcomes have actually declined in several regions. Be that as it may, it would be premature to abandon the policy entirely. Rather, what is needed is a thorough review and, more specifically, greater investment in teacher development. All things considered, the policy represents a step in the right direction, albeit one that requires significant course correction."
Common Mistakes
Mistake 1: Overusing discourse markers
- Bad: "However, furthermore, moreover, the point is that..."
- Better: Use them sparingly. One per paragraph transition is usually enough.
Mistake 2: Using the wrong register
- Too formal for speech: "Notwithstanding the rain, let's go get pizza."
- Better in speech: "Despite the rain, let's go get pizza."
Mistake 3: Wrong punctuation
- Most sentence-initial discourse markers need a comma after them: "Nevertheless, the project continued."
- "However" in the middle needs commas on both sides: "The plan, however, was rejected."
Mistake 4: Confusing "on the other hand" and "on the contrary"
- On the other hand: presents a different perspective (not necessarily opposite).
- On the contrary: directly contradicts what was said before.
Practice Tips
- Read editorials and opinion pieces: Pay close attention to how professional writers connect their ideas. The New York Times, BBC, and The Atlantic are excellent sources.
- Record yourself speaking: Listen back and notice where you could use more varied discourse markers instead of "but," "so," and "and."
- Rewrite paragraphs: Take a simple paragraph and elevate it by adding appropriate discourse markers.
- Match the register: Before using a discourse marker, ask yourself: Is this formal or informal? Written or spoken? Does it fit the context?
- Build a personal reference list: Group discourse markers by function (adding, contrasting, concluding) and keep it nearby when writing essays.